Richard Cantillon (French: [kɑ̃tijɔ̃]; 1680s – May 1734) was an Irish-French economist and author of Essai sur la Nature du Commerce en Général (Essay on the Nature of Trade in General), a book considered by William Stanley Jevons to be the “cradle of political economy“.^[4] Although little information exists on Cantillon’s life, it is known that he became a successful banker and merchant at an early age. His success was largely derived from the political and business connections he made through his family and through an early employer, James Brydges. During the late 1710s and early 1720s, Cantillon speculated in, and later helped fund, John Law‘s Mississippi Company, from which he acquired great wealth. However, his success came at a cost to his debtors, who pursued him with lawsuits, criminal charges, and even murder plots until his death in 1734.

Essai remains Cantillon’s only surviving contribution to economics. It was written around 1730 and circulated widely in manuscript form, but was not published until 1755. His work was translated into Spanish by Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, probably in the late 1770s, and considered essential reading for political economy. Despite having much influence on the early development of the physiocrat and classical schools of thought, Essai was largely forgotten until its rediscovery by Jevons in the late 19th century.^[5] Cantillon was influenced by his experiences as a banker, and especially by the speculative bubble of John Law’s Mississippi Company. He was also heavily influenced by prior economists, especially William Petty.

Essai is considered the first complete treatise on economics, with numerous contributions to the science. These contributions include: his cause and effect methodology, monetary theories, his conception of the entrepreneur as a risk-bearer, and the development of spatial economics. Cantillon’s Essai had significant influence on the early development of political economy, including the works of Adam Smith, Anne Turgot, Jean-Baptiste Say, Frédéric Bastiat and François Quesnay.^[6]

Biography

While details regarding Richard Cantillon’s life are scarce,^[7] it is thought that he was born sometime during the 1680s in County Kerry, Ireland.^[1]^[6] He was son to land-owner Richard Cantillon of Ballyheigue.^[8] Sometime in the middle of the first decade of the 18th century Cantillon moved to France, where he attained French citizenship.^[9] By 1711, Cantillon found himself in the employment of British Paymaster General James Brydges, in Spain, where he organised payments to British prisoners of war during the War of Spanish Succession.^[10] Cantillon remained in Spain until 1714, cultivating a number of business and political connections, before returning to Paris.^[11] Cantillon then became involved in the banking industry working for a cousin, who at that time was lead-correspondent of the Parisian branch of a family bank.^[12] Two years later, thanks in large part to financial backing by James Brydges, Cantillon bought his cousin out and attained ownership of the bank.^[13] Given the financial and political connections Cantillon was able to attain both through his family^[14] and through James Brydges, Cantillon proved a fairly successful banker, specialising in money transfers between Paris and London.^[15]

At this time, Cantillon became involved with British mercantilist John Law through the Mississippi Company.^[16] Based on the monetary theory proposed by William Potter in his 1650 tract The Key of Wealth,^[17] John Law posited that increases in the money supply would lead to the employment of unused land and labour, leading to higher productivity.^[18] In 1716, the French government granted him both permission to found the Banque Générale and virtual monopoly over the right to develop French territories in North America, named the Mississippi Company. In return, Law promised the French government to finance its debt at low rates of interest.^[19] Law began a financial speculative bubble by selling shares of the Mississippi Company, using the Banque Générale’s virtual monopoly on the issue of bank notes to finance his investors.^[20]

Richard Cantillon amassed a great fortune from his speculation, buying Mississippi Company shares early and selling them at inflated prices.^[21] Cantillon’s financial success and growing influence caused friction in his relationship with John Law, and sometime thereafter Law threatened to imprison Cantillon if the latter did not leave France within twenty-four hours.^[22] Cantillon replied: “I shall not go away; but I will make your system succeed.”^[22] To that end, in 1718 Law, Cantillon, and wealthy speculator Joseph Gage formed a private company centred on financing further speculation in North American real estate.^[23]

In 1719, Cantillon left Paris for Amsterdam, returning briefly in early 1720. Lending in Paris, Cantillon had outlying debt repaid to him in London and Amsterdam.^[24] With the collapse of the “Mississippi bubble”, Cantillon was able to collect on debt accruing high rates of interest.^[25] Most of his debtors had suffered financial damage in the bubble collapse and blamed Cantillon—until his death, Cantillon was involved in countless lawsuits filed by his debtors, leading to a number of murder plots and criminal accusations.^[26]

On 16 February 1722, Cantillon married Mary Mahony, daughter of Count Daniel O’Mahony [fr]—a wealthy merchant and former Irish general—spending much of the remainder of the 1720s travelling throughout Europe with his wife.^[27] Cantillon and Mary had two children, a son who died at an early age and a daughter, Henrietta,^[28] wife successively of the 3rd Earl of Stafford and the 1st Earl of Farnham. Although he frequently returned to Paris between 1729 and 1733, his permanent residence was in London.^[29] In May 1734, his residence in London was burned to the ground, and it is generally assumed that Cantillon died in the fire.^[2] While the fire’s causes are unclear, the most widely accepted theory is that Cantillon was murdered.^[30] One of Cantillon’s biographers, Antoine Murphy, has advanced the alternative theory that Cantillon staged his own death to escape the harassment of his debtors, appearing in Suriname under the name Chevalier de Louvigny.^[31]

Contributions to economics

Although there is evidence that Richard Cantillon wrote a wide variety of manuscripts, only his Essai Sur La Nature Du Commerce En Général (abbreviated Essai) survives.^[6]^[32] Written in 1730,^[33] it was published in French in 1755,^[34] and was translated into English by Henry Higgs in 1932.^[35] Evidence suggests that Essai had tremendous influence on the early development of economic science. However, Cantillon’s treatise was largely neglected during the 19th century.^[5] In the late 19th century and it was “rediscovered” by William Stanley Jevons, who considered it the “cradle of political economy”.^[4] Since then, Cantillon’s Essai has received growing attention. Essai is considered the first complete treatise on economic theory,^[36] and Cantillon has been called the “father of enterprise economics”.^[6]^[37]

William Petty is considered to be one of Richard Cantillon’s greatest influences.^[38]

One of the greatest influences on Cantillon’s writing was English economist William Petty and his 1662 tract Treatise on Taxes.^[39] Although Petty provided much of the groundwork for Cantillon’s Essai,^[38] Anthony Brewer argues that Petty’s influence has been overstated.^[40] Apart from Petty, other possible influences on Cantillon include John Locke,^[41] Cicero, Livy, Pliny the Elder, Pliny the Younger, Charles Davenant, Edmond Halley, Isaac Newton, Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban, and Jean Boisard.^[3] Cantillon’s involvement in John Law’s speculative bubble proved invaluable and likely heavily influenced his insight on the relationship between increases in the supply of money, price, and production.^[42]

Methodology

Cantillon’s Essai is written using a distinctive causal methodology, separating Cantillon from his mercantilist predecessors.^[6]^[43] Essai is peppered with the word “natural”, which in the case of Cantillon’s treatise is meant to imply a cause and effect relationship between economic actions and phenomena.^[44] Economist Murray Rothbard credits Cantillon with being one of the first theorists to isolate economic phenomena with simple models, where otherwise uncontrollable variables can be fixed.^[45] Cantillon made frequent use of the concept of ceteris paribus throughout Essai in an attempt to neutralise independent variables.^[46] Furthermore, he is credited with employing a methodology similar to Carl Menger‘s methodological individualism,^[47] by deducing complex phenomena from simple observations.^[48]

A cause and effect methodology led to a relatively value-free approach to economic science, in which Cantillon was uninterested in the merit of any particular economic action or phenomenon, focusing rather on the explanation of relationships.^[49] This led Cantillon to separate economic science from politics and ethics to a greater degree than previous mercantilist writers.^[45] This has led to disputes on whether Cantillon can justly be considered a mercantilist or one of the first anti-mercantilists,^[50] given that Cantillon often cited government-manipulated trade surpluses and specie accumulation as positive economic stimuli.^[51] Others argue that in instances where Cantillon is thought to have supported certain mercantilist policies, he actually provided a more neutral analysis by explicitly stating possible limitations of mercantilist policies.^[52]

Monetary theory

Differences between prior mercantilists and Cantillon arise early in Essai, regarding the origins of wealth and price formation on the market.^[53] Cantillon distinguishes between wealth and money, considering wealth in itself “nothing but the food, conveniences, and pleasures of life.”^[54] While Cantillon advocated an “intrinsic” theory of value, based on the input of land and labour (cost of production),^[55] he is considered to have touched upon a subjective theory of value.^[56] Cantillon held that market prices are not immediately decided by intrinsic value, but are derived from supply and demand.^[57] He considered market prices to be derived by comparing supply, the quantity of a particular good in a particular market, to demand, the quantity of money brought to be exchanged.^[58] Believing market prices to tend towards the intrinsic value of a good, Cantillon may have also originated the uniformity-of-profit principle—changes in the market price of a good may lead to changes in supply, reflecting a rise or fall in profit.^[59]

Rendition of Cantillon’s primitive circular flow model^[60]

In Essai, Cantillon provided an advanced version of John Locke’s quantity theory of money, focusing on relative inflation and the velocity of money.^[61] Cantillon suggested that inflation occurs gradually and that the new supply of money has a localised effect on inflation, effectively originating the concept of non-neutral money.^[62] Furthermore, he posited that the original recipients of new money enjoy higher standards of living at the expense of later recipients.^[63] The concept of relative inflation, or a disproportionate rise in prices among different goods in an economy, is now known as the Cantillon Effect.^[64] Cantillon also considered changes in the velocity of money (quantity of exchanges made within a specific amount of time) influential on prices, although not to the same degree as changes in the quantity of money.^[65] While he believed that the money supply consisted only of specie, he conceded that increases in money substitutes—or bank notes—could affect prices by effectively increasing the velocity of circulating of deposited specie.^[66] Apart from distinguishing money from money substitute, he also distinguished between bank notes offered as receipts for specie deposits and bank notes circulating beyond the quantity of specie—or fiduciary media—suggesting that the volume of fiduciary media is strictly limited by people’s confidence in its redeemability.^[67] He considered fiduciary media a useful tool to abate the downward pressure that hoarding of specie has on the velocity of money.^[68]

Addressing the mercantilist belief that monetary intervention could cause a perpetually favourable balance of trade, Cantillon developed a specie-flow mechanism foreshadowing future international monetary equilibrium theories.^[69] He suggested that in countries with a high quantity of money in circulation, prices will increase and therefore become less competitive in relation to countries where there is a relative scarcity of money.^[70] Thus, Cantillon also held that increases in the supply of money, regardless of the source, cause increases in the price level and therefore reduce the competitiveness of a particular nation’s industry in relation to a nation with lower prices.^[71] However, Cantillon did not believe that international markets tended toward equilibrium, and instead suggested that government hoard specie to avoid rising prices and falling competitiveness.^[69] Furthermore, he suggested that a favourable balance of trade can be maintained by offering a better product and retaining qualitative competitiveness.^[72] Cantillon’s preference towards a favourable balance of trade possibly stemmed from the mercantilist belief in exchange being a zero-sum game, in which one party gains at the expense of another.^[73]

A relatively advanced theory of interest is also presented.^[74] Cantillon believed that interest originates from the need of borrowers for capital and from the fear of loss of the lenders, meaning that borrowers have to recompense lenders for the risk of the possible insolvency of the debtor.^[75] In turn, interest is paid out of earned profits originating from the return on invested capital.^[76] While previously it was believed that the rate of interest varied inversely to the quantity of money, Cantillon posited that the rate of interest was determined by the supply and demand on the loanable funds market^[77]—an insight usually attributed to Scottish philosopher David Hume.^[78] As such, while saved money impacts the rate of interest, new money that is instead used for consumption does not; Cantillon’s theory of interest is therefore similar to John Maynard Keynes‘s liquidity preference theory.^[79]

Other contributions[edit]

Traditionally, it is Jean-Baptiste Say who is credited for coining the word and advancing the concept of the entrepreneur, but in fact it was Cantillon who first introduced the term in Essai.^[6]^[80] Cantillon divided society into two principal classes—fixed income wage-earners and non-fixed income earners.^[81] Entrepreneurs, according to Cantillon, are non-fixed income earners who pay known costs of production but earn uncertain incomes,^[82] due to the speculative nature of pandering to an unknown demand for their product.^[83] Cantillon, while providing the foundations, did not develop a dedicated theory of uncertainty—the topic was not revisited until the 20th century, by Ludwig von Mises, Frank Knight, and John Maynard Keynes, among others.^[84] Furthermore, unlike later theories of entrepreneurship which saw the entrepreneur as a disruptive force, Cantillon anticipated the belief that the entrepreneur brought equilibrium to a market by correctly predicting consumer preferences.^[85]

Spatial economics deal with distance and area, and how these may affect a market through transportation costs and geographical limitations. The development of spatial economics is usually ascribed to German economist Johann Heinrich von Thünen; however, Cantillon addressed spatial economics nearly a century earlier.^[86] Cantillon integrated his advancements in spatial economic theory into his microeconomic analysis of the market, describing how transportation costs influence the location of factories, markets and population centres—that is, individuals strive to lower transportation costs.^[87] Conclusions on spatial economics were derived from three premises: cost of raw materials of equal quality will always be higher near the capital city, due to transportation costs; transportation costs vary on transportation type (for example, water transportation was considered cheaper than land-based transportation); and larger goods that are more difficult to transport will always be cheaper closer to their area of production.^[88] For example, Cantillon believed markets were designed as they were to decrease costs to both merchants and villagers in terms of time and transportation.^[89] Similarly, Cantillon posited that the locations of cities were the result in large part of the wealth of inhabiting property owners and their ability to afford transportation costs—wealthier property owners tended to live farther from their property, because they could afford the transportation costs.^[90] In Essai, spatial economic theory was used to derive why markets occupied the geographical area they did and why costs varied across different markets.^[91]

Cover of the Ludwig von Mises Institute’s edition of Cantillon’s Essai

Apart from originating theories on the entrepreneur and spatial economics, Cantillon also provided a dedicated theory on population growth. Unlike William Petty, who believed there always existed a considerable amount of unused land and economic opportunity to support economic growth, Cantillon theorised that population grows only as long as there are economic opportunities present.^[92] Specifically, Cantillon cited three determining variables for population size: natural resources, technology, and culture.^[93] Therefore, populations grow only as far as the three aforementioned variables allowed.^[94] Furthermore, Cantillon’s population theory was more modern than that of Malthus in the sense that Cantillon recognised a much broader category of factors which affect population growth, including the tendency for population growth to fall to zero as a society becomes more industrialised.^[95]

Influence

While Essai was not published until 1755 as a result of heavy censorship in France, it did widely circulate in the form of an unpublished manuscript between its completion and its publication.^[96] It notably influenced many direct forerunners of the classical school of thought, including Turgot and other physiocrats.^[97] Cantillon was a major influence on physiocrat François Quesnay, who may have learned of Cantillon’s work through Marquis of Mirabeau.^[98] While it is evident that Essai influenced Quesnay, to what degree remains controversial. There is evidence that Quesnay did not fully understand, or was not completely aware of, Cantillon’s theories.^[99] Many of Quesnay’s economic beliefs were elucidated previously in Essai,^[100] but Quesnay did reject a number of Cantillon’s premises, including the scarcity of land and Cantillon’s population theory.^[101] Also, Quesnay recognised the scarcity of capital and capital accumulation as a prerequisite for investment.^[99] Nevertheless, Cantillon was considered the “father of physiocracy” by Henry Higgs, due to his influence on Quesnay.^[102] It is also possible that Cantillon influenced Scottish economist James Steuart, both directly and indirectly.^[103]

Cantillon is one of the few economists cited by Adam Smith, who directly borrows Cantillon’s subsistence theory of wages.^[6]^[104] Large sections of Smith’s economic theory were possibly directly influenced by Cantillon, although in many respects Adam Smith advanced well beyond the scope of Cantillon.^[105] Some economic historians have argued that Adam Smith provided little of value from his own intellect, notably Schumpeter^[6]^[106] and Rothbard.^[107] In any case, through his influence on Adam Smith and the physiocrats, Cantillon was quite possibly the pre-classical economist who contributed most to the ideas of the classical school.^[108] Illustrative of this was Cantillon’s influence on Jean-Baptiste Say, which is noticeable in the methodology employed in the latter’s Treatise on Political Economy.^[6]^[109]

References…

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Cantillon

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Richard Cantillon
Richard Cantillon
Born	1680s Tralee, County Kerry, Ireland
Died	1734 (aged about 54) London, England, Great Britain
Era	Age of Reason
Region	Western philosophy
School	Physiocracy
Main interests	Political economy
Notable ideas	Entrepreneur as risk-bearer,; monetary theory,; spatial economics,; theory of population growth,; cause and effect methodology
	Influences[show]
	Influenced[show]
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Year	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
2000	142267(1)	142456	142434	142751	142388	142591	142278	142514	142518	142622	142962	143248
2001	143800	143701	143924	143569	143318	143357	143654	143284	143989	144086	144240	144305
2002	143883	144653	144481	144725	144938	144808	144803	145009	145552	145314	145041	145066
2003	145937(1)	146100	146022	146474	146500	147056	146485	146445	146530	146716	147000	146729
2004	146842(1)	146709	146944	146850	147065	147460	147692	147564	147415	147793	148162	148059
2005	148029(1)	148364	148391	148926	149261	149238	149432	149779	149954	150001	150065	150030
2006	150214(1)	150641	150813	150881	151069	151354	151377	151716	151662	152041	152406	152732
2007	153144(1)	152983	153051	152435	152670	153041	153054	152749	153414	153183	153835	153918
2008	154063(1)	153653	153908	153769	154303	154313	154469	154641	154570	154876	154639	154655
2009	154210(1)	154538	154133	154509	154747	154716	154502	154307	153827	153784	153878	153111
2010	153484(1)	153694	153954	154622	154091	153616	153691	154086	153975	153635	154125	153650
2011	153263(1)	153214	153376	153543	153479	153346	153288	153760	154131	153961	154128	153995
2012	154381(1)	154671	154749	154545	154866	155083	154948	154763	155160	155554	155338	155628
2013	155763(1)	155312	155005	155394	155536	155749	155599	155605	155687	154673	155265	155182
2014	155352(1)	155483	156028	155369	155684	155707	156007	156130	156040	156417	156494	156332
2015	157053(1)	156663	156626	157017	157616	157014	157008	157165	156745	157188	157502	158080
2016	158371(1)	158705	159079	158891	158700	158899	159150	159582	159810	159768	159629	159779
2017	159693(1)	159854	160036	160169	159910	160124	160383	160706	161190	160436	160626	160636
2018	161123(1)	161900	161646	161551	161667	162129	162209	161802	162055	162694	162821	163240
2019	163229(1)	163184	162960	162470	162646	162981	163351	163922	164039	164364	164404
1 : Data affected by changes in population controls.

Year	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
2000	67.3	67.3	67.3	67.3	67.1	67.1	66.9	66.9	66.9	66.8	66.9	67.0
2001	67.2	67.1	67.2	66.9	66.7	66.7	66.8	66.5	66.8	66.7	66.7	66.7
2002	66.5	66.8	66.6	66.7	66.7	66.6	66.5	66.6	66.7	66.6	66.4	66.3
2003	66.4	66.4	66.3	66.4	66.4	66.5	66.2	66.1	66.1	66.1	66.1	65.9
2004	66.1	66.0	66.0	65.9	66.0	66.1	66.1	66.0	65.8	65.9	66.0	65.9
2005	65.8	65.9	65.9	66.1	66.1	66.1	66.1	66.2	66.1	66.1	66.0	66.0
2006	66.0	66.1	66.2	66.1	66.1	66.2	66.1	66.2	66.1	66.2	66.3	66.4
2007	66.4	66.3	66.2	65.9	66.0	66.0	66.0	65.8	66.0	65.8	66.0	66.0
2008	66.2	66.0	66.1	65.9	66.1	66.1	66.1	66.1	66.0	66.0	65.9	65.8
2009	65.7	65.8	65.6	65.7	65.7	65.7	65.5	65.4	65.1	65.0	65.0	64.6
2010	64.8	64.9	64.9	65.2	64.9	64.6	64.6	64.7	64.6	64.4	64.6	64.3
2011	64.2	64.1	64.2	64.2	64.1	64.0	64.0	64.1	64.2	64.1	64.1	64.0
2012	63.7	63.8	63.8	63.7	63.7	63.8	63.7	63.5	63.6	63.8	63.6	63.7
2013	63.7	63.4	63.3	63.4	63.4	63.4	63.3	63.3	63.2	62.8	63.0	62.9
2014	62.9	62.9	63.1	62.8	62.9	62.8	62.9	62.9	62.8	62.9	62.9	62.8
2015	62.9	62.7	62.6	62.7	62.9	62.6	62.6	62.6	62.4	62.5	62.6	62.7
2016	62.7	62.8	62.9	62.8	62.7	62.7	62.8	62.9	62.9	62.8	62.7	62.7
2017	62.9	62.9	62.9	62.9	62.8	62.8	62.9	62.9	63.1	62.7	62.8	62.7
2018	62.7	63.0	62.9	62.8	62.8	62.9	62.9	62.7	62.7	62.9	62.9	63.1
2019	63.2	63.2	63.0	62.8	62.8	62.9	63.0	63.2	63.2	63.3	63.2

Year	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
2000	136559(1)	136598	136701	137270	136630	136940	136531	136662	136893	137088	137322	137614
2001	137778	137612	137783	137299	137092	136873	137071	136241	136846	136392	136238	136047
2002	135701	136438	136177	136126	136539	136415	136413	136705	137302	137008	136521	136426
2003	137417(1)	137482	137434	137633	137544	137790	137474	137549	137609	137984	138424	138411
2004	138472(1)	138542	138453	138680	138852	139174	139556	139573	139487	139732	140231	140125
2005	140245(1)	140385	140654	141254	141609	141714	142026	142434	142401	142548	142499	142752
2006	143150(1)	143457	143741	143761	144089	144353	144202	144625	144815	145314	145534	145970
2007	146028(1)	146057	146320	145586	145903	146063	145905	145682	146244	145946	146595	146273
2008	146378(1)	146156	146086	146132	145908	145737	145532	145203	145076	144802	144100	143369
2009	142152(1)	141640	140707	140656	140248	140009	139901	139492	138818	138432	138659	138013
2010	138438(1)	138581	138751	139297	139241	139141	139179	139438	139396	139119	139044	139301
2011	139250(1)	139394	139639	139586	139624	139384	139524	139942	140183	140368	140826	140902
2012	141584(1)	141858	142036	141899	142206	142391	142292	142291	143044	143431	143333	143330
2013	143292(1)	143362	143316	143635	143882	143999	144264	144326	144418	143537	144479	144778
2014	145150(1)	145134	145648	145667	145825	146247	146399	146530	146778	147427	147404	147615
2015	148150(1)	148053	148122	148491	148802	148765	148815	149175	148853	149270	149506	150164
2016	150622(1)	150934	151146	150963	151074	151104	151450	151766	151877	151949	152150	152276
2017	152128(1)	152417	152958	153150	152920	153176	153456	153591	154399	153847	153945	154065
2018	154482(1)	155213	155160	155216	155539	155592	155964	155604	156069	156582	156803	156945
2019	156694(1)	156949	156748	156645	156758	157005	157288	157878	158269	158510	158593
1 : Data affected by changes in population controls.

Year	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
2009	7.8	8.3	8.7	9.0	9.4	9.5	9.5	9.6	9.8	10.0	9.9	9.9
2010	9.8	9.8	9.9	9.9	9.6	9.4	9.4	9.5	9.5	9.4	9.8	9.3
2011	9.1	9.0	9.0	9.1	9.0	9.1	9.0	9.0	9.0	8.8	8.6	8.5
2012	8.3	8.3	8.2	8.2	8.2	8.2	8.2	8.1	7.8	7.8	7.7	7.9
2013	8.0	7.7	7.5	7.6	7.5	7.5	7.3	7.2	7.2	7.2	6.9	6.7
2014	6.6	6.7	6.7	6.2	6.3	6.1	6.2	6.1	5.9	5.7	5.8	5.6
2015	5.7	5.5	5.4	5.4	5.6	5.3	5.2	5.1	5.0	5.0	5.1	5.0
2016	4.9	4.9	5.0	5.0	4.8	4.9	4.8	4.9	5.0	4.9	4.7	4.7
2017	4.7	4.7	4.4	4.4	4.4	4.3	4.3	4.4	4.2	4.1	4.2	4.1
2018	4.1	4.1	4.0	3.9	3.8	4.0	3.9	3.8	3.7	3.8	3.7	3.9
2019	4.0	3.8	3.8	3.6	3.6	3.7	3.7	3.7	3.5	3.6	3.5

Year	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
2009	14.2	15.2	15.8	15.9	16.5	16.5	16.4	16.7	16.7	17.1	17.1	17.1
2010	16.7	17.0	17.1	17.1	16.6	16.4	16.4	16.5	16.8	16.6	16.9	16.6
2011	16.2	16.0	15.9	16.1	15.8	16.1	15.9	16.1	16.4	15.8	15.5	15.2
2012	15.2	15.0	14.5	14.6	14.7	14.8	14.8	14.6	14.8	14.4	14.4	14.4
2013	14.6	14.4	13.8	14.0	13.8	14.2	13.8	13.6	13.5	13.6	13.1	13.1
2014	12.7	12.6	12.6	12.3	12.2	12.0	12.1	12.0	11.7	11.5	11.4	11.2
2015	11.3	11.0	10.8	10.8	10.9	10.4	10.3	10.2	10.0	9.8	10.0	9.9
2016	9.8	9.7	9.8	9.7	9.9	9.5	9.7	9.6	9.7	9.6	9.4	9.2
2017	9.3	9.1	8.7	8.6	8.5	8.5	8.5	8.6	8.3	8.0	8.0	8.1
2018	8.2	8.2	7.9	7.8	7.7	7.8	7.5	7.4	7.5	7.5	7.6	7.6
2019	8.1	7.3	7.3	7.3	7.1	7.2	7.0	7.2	6.9	7.0	6.9

Richard Cantillon

Born	1680s^[1] Tralee, County Kerry, Ireland
Died	1734^[2] (aged about 54) London, England, Great Britain

Era	Age of Reason
Region	Western philosophy
School	Physiocracy
Main interests	Political economy
Notable ideas	Entrepreneur as risk-bearer, monetary theory, spatial economics, theory of population growth, cause and effect methodology
Influences[show]
Influenced[show]
Signature

Year	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
2000	69142	69120	69338	69267	69853	69876	70398	70401	70645	70782	70579	70488
2001	70088	70409	70381	70956	71414	71592	71526	72136	71676	71817	71876	72010
2002	72623	72010	72343	72281	72260	72600	72827	72856	72554	73026	73508	73675
2003	73960	74015	74295	74066	74268	73958	74767	75062	75249	75324	75280	75780
2004	75319	75648	75606	75907	75903	75735	75730	76113	76526	76399	76259	76581
2005	76808	76677	76846	76514	76409	76673	76721	76642	76739	76958	77138	77394
2006	77339	77122	77161	77318	77359	77317	77535	77451	77757	77634	77499	77376
2007	77506	77851	77982	78818	78810	78671	78904	79461	79047	79532	79105	79238
2008	78554	79156	79087	79429	79102	79314	79395	79466	79790	79736	80189	80380
2009	80529	80374	80953	80762	80705	80938	81367	81780	82495	82766	82865	83813
2010	83349	83304	83206	82707	83409	84075	84199	84014	84347	84895	84590	85240
2011	85441	85637	85623	85603	85834	86144	86383	86111	85940	86308	86312	86589
2012	87888	87765	87855	88239	88100	88073	88405	88803	88613	88429	88836	88722
2013	88900	89516	89990	89780	89827	89803	90156	90355	90481	91708	91302	91563
2014	91563	91603	91230	92070	91938	92107	92016	92099	92406	92240	92350	92695
2015	92671	93237	93454	93249	92839	93649	93868	93931	94580	94353	94245	93856
2016	94026	93872	93689	94077	94475	94498	94470	94272	94281	94553	94911	94963
2017	94389	94392	94378	94419	94857	94833	94769	94651	94372	95330	95323	95473
2018	95657	95033	95451	95721	95787	95513	95633	96264	96235	95821	95886	95649
2019	95010	95208	95577	96223	96215	96057	95874	95510	95599	95481	95616

Year	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
2009	12058	12898	13426	13853	14499	14707	14601	14814	15009	15352	15219	15098
2010	15046	15113	15202	15325	14849	14474	14512	14648	14579	14516	15081	14348
2011	14013	13820	13737	13957	13855	13962	13763	13818	13948	13594	13302	13093
2012	12797	12813	12713	12646	12660	12692	12656	12471	12115	12124	12005	12298
2013	12471	11950	11689	11760	11654	11751	11335	11279	11270	11136	10787	10404
2014	10202	10349	10380	9702	9859	9460	9608	9599	9262	8990	9090	8717
2015	8903	8610	8504	8526	8814	8249	8194	7990	7892	7918	7995	7916
2016	7749	7771	7932	7928	7626	7795	7700	7817	7933	7819	7480	7503
2017	7565	7437	7078	7019	6991	6948	6927	7115	6791	6588	6682	6572
2018	6641	6687	6486	6335	6128	6537	6245	6197	5986	6112	6018	6294
2019	6535	6235	6211	5824	5888	5975	6063	6044	5769	5855	5811

Category	Nov. 2018	Sept. 2019	Oct. 2019	Nov. 2019	Change from: Oct. 2019- Nov. 2019
Employment status
Civilian noninstitutional population	258,708	259,638	259,845	260,020	175
Civilian labor force	162,821	164,039	164,364	164,404	40
Participation rate	62.9	63.2	63.3	63.2	-0.1
Employed	156,803	158,269	158,510	158,593	83
Employment-population ratio	60.6	61.0	61.0	61.0	0.0
Unemployed	6,018	5,769	5,855	5,811	-44
Unemployment rate	3.7	3.5	3.6	3.5	-0.1
Not in labor force	95,886	95,599	95,481	95,616	135

Unemployment rates
Total, 16 years and over	3.7	3.5	3.6	3.5	-0.1
Adult men (20 years and over)	3.3	3.2	3.2	3.2	0.0
Adult women (20 years and over)	3.4	3.1	3.2	3.2	0.0
Teenagers (16 to 19 years)	12.0	12.5	12.3	12.0	-0.3
White	3.4	3.2	3.2	3.2	0.0
Black or African American	6.0	5.5	5.4	5.5	0.1
Asian	2.7	2.5	2.9	2.6	-0.3
Hispanic or Latino ethnicity	4.5	3.9	4.1	4.2	0.1

Total, 25 years and over	3.0	2.8	2.9	2.9	0.0
Less than a high school diploma	5.6	4.8	5.6	5.3	-0.3
High school graduates, no college	3.5	3.6	3.7	3.7	0.0
Some college or associate degree	3.1	2.9	2.9	2.9	0.0
Bachelor’s degree and higher	2.2	2.0	2.1	2.0	-0.1

Reason for unemployment
Job losers and persons who completed temporary jobs	2,842	2,572	2,674	2,806	132
Job leavers	697	840	849	777	-72
Reentrants	1,880	1,669	1,703	1,664	-39
New entrants	577	677	627	586	-41

Duration of unemployment
Less than 5 weeks	2,128	1,868	1,968	2,020	52
5 to 14 weeks	1,842	1,781	1,749	1,757	8
15 to 26 weeks	865	819	899	872	-27
27 weeks and over	1,259	1,314	1,264	1,224	-40

Employed persons at work part time
Part time for economic reasons	4,781	4,350	4,438	4,322	-116
Slack work or business conditions	2,882	2,588	2,754	2,633	-121
Could only find part-time work	1,562	1,322	1,287	1,268	-19
Part time for noneconomic reasons	20,909	21,573	21,549	21,534	-15

Persons not in the labor force (not seasonally adjusted)
Marginally attached to the labor force	1,678	1,299	1,229	1,246	–
Discouraged workers	453	321	341	325	–
– Over-the-month changes are not displayed for not seasonally adjusted data. NOTE: Persons whose ethnicity is identified as Hispanic or Latino may be of any race. Detail for the seasonally adjusted data shown in this table will not necessarily add to totals because of the independent seasonal adjustment of the various series. Updated population controls are introduced annually with the release of January data.

William Strauss

Born	December 5, 1947 Chicago, Illinois, U.S.
Died	December 18, 2007 (aged 60) McLean, Virginia, U.S.
Nationality	American
Alma mater	Harvard University
Occupation	author playwright theatre director lecturer
Known for	Strauss–Howe generational theory, Capitol Steps, Cappies

Stefan A. Halper
Halper in 2010
Born	June 4, 1944 (age 75)
Nationality	American
Education	Stanford University (BA) University of Oxford (PhD) University of Cambridge (PhD)
Occupation	Professor

John Durham


United States Attorney for the District of Connecticut
Incumbent
Assumed office October 27, 2017 Acting: October 27, 2017 – February 22, 2018
President	Donald Trump
Preceded by	Deirdre M. Daly
In office 1997 – 1998 Acting
President	Bill Clinton
Preceded by	Christopher F. Droney^[1]
Succeeded by	Stephen C. Robinson
Personal details
Born	John Henry Durham 1950 (age 68–69) Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.
Political party	Republican^[2]
Education	Colgate University (BA) University of Connecticut (JD)

Iran			Saudi Arabia
Gouvernement
Annual GDP [+]	2018	452,275M.$	782,483M.$	2018	Annual GDP [+]
GDP per capita [+]	2018	5,529$	23,219$	2018	GDP per capita [+]
Debt [+]	2017	170,342	149,279	2018	Debt [+]
Debt (%GDP) [+]	2017	39.53%	19.08%	2018	Debt (%GDP) [+]
Debt Per Capita [+]	2017	2,092$	4,430$	2018	Debt Per Capita [+]
Deficit (M.$) [+]	2017	-7,828	-36,267	2018	Deficit (M.$) [+]
Deficit (%GDP) [+]	2017	-1.82%	-4.64%	2018	Deficit (%GDP) [+]
Expenditure (M.$) [+]	2017	83,377.9	274,773.5	2018	Expenditure (M.$) [+]
Education Expenditure (M.$) [+]	2017	16,325.6	26,706.2	2008	Education Expenditure (M.$) [+]
Education Expenditure (%Bud.) [+]	2017	20.04%	19.26%	2008	Education Expenditure (%Bud.) [+]
Gov. Health Exp.(M.$) [+]	2016	17,868.7	25,107.5	2016	Gov. Health Exp.(M.$) [+]
Gov. Health Exp. (%Bud.) [+]	2016	22.60%	10.06%	2016	Gov. Health Exp. (%Bud.) [+]
Defence Expenditure (M.$) [+]	2018	12,064.5	68,660.7	2018	Defence Expenditure (M.$) [+]
Defence Expenditure (%Bud.) [+]	2018	15.78%	24.59%	2018	Defence Expenditure (%Bud.) [+]
Expenditure (%GDP) [+]	2017	19.35%	35.12%	2018	Expenditure (%GDP) [+]
Expenditure Per Capita [+]	2017	1,024$	8,154$	2018	Expenditure Per Capita [+]
Education Expenditure P.C [+]	2017	201$	1,036$	2008	Education Expenditure P.C [+]
Gov. Health Exp. P.C. [+]	2016	226$	778$	2016	Gov. Health Exp. P.C. [+]
Defence Expenditure P.C. [+]	2018	147$	2,037$	2018	Defence Expenditure P.C. [+]
			A1	04/13/2018	Moody’s Rating [+]
			A-	02/17/2016	S&P Rating [+]
Fitch Rating [+]	04/24/2006	B+	A+	04/30/2019	Fitch Rating [+]
Corruption Index [+]	2018	28	49	2018	Corruption Index [+]
Competitiveness Ranking [+]	2018	89º	39º	2018	Competitiveness Ranking [+]
Fragile States Index [+]	2018	84.3	70.2	2018	Fragile States Index [+]
RTI Raking [+]	09/28/2018	99º
Innovation Ranking [+]	2018	65º	61º	2018	Innovation Ranking [+]
Labour
Unemployment rate [+]	2017Q1	12.5%	5.6%	2016Q2	Unemployment rate [+]
Unemployed [+]	2017Q1	3,199 m.	699 m.	2016Q2	Unemployed [+]
NMW [+]	2011	319.0 $	800.0 $	2013	NMW [+]
Human Capital Ranking [+]	2017	104º	82º	2017	Human Capital Ranking [+]
Markets
US Dollar exchange rate [+]	05/14/2018	42,000.0000	3.7500	05/14/2018	US Dollar exchange rate [+]
			1.28%	09/19/2019	Stock ExchangeYTD % [+]
Business
Doing Business [+]	2019	128º	92º	2019	Doing Business [+]
Passengers vehicles Year [+]	December 2017	1,592,282	438,421	December 2017	Passengers vehicles Year [+]
Annual Vehicles/ 1,000 p. [+]	December 2017	21.11	16.84	December 2017	Annual Vehicles/ 1,000 p. [+]
Motor vehicle production [+]	2018	1,342,000
Vehicles / 1,000 people [+]	2015	177.79	212.79	2015	Vehicles / 1,000 people [+]
Taxes
			5.00%	01/01/2018	Standard VAT [+]
			0%	2018	Top tax rate + SSC [+]
Trade
Exports [+]	2017	91,000.0 M.$	218,374.0 M.$	2017	Exports [+]
Exports % GDP [+]	2017	21.13%	31.71%	2017	Exports % GDP [+]
Imports [+]	2017	49,000.0 M.$	134,520.0 M.$	2017	Imports [+]
Imports % GDP [+]	2017	11.38%	19.54%	2017	Imports % GDP [+]
Trade balance [+]	2017	42,000.0 M.$	83,854.0 M.$	2017	Trade balance [+]
Trade balance % GDP [+]	2017	9.75%	12.18%	2017	Trade balance % GDP [+]
Socio-Demography
Density [+]	2018	47	16	2018	Density [+]
Global Peace Ranking [+]	2019	139º	129º	2019	Global Peace Ranking [+]
Remittance received (M.$) [+]	2017	1,378.8	286.5	2017	Remittance received (M.$) [+]
% Immigrant [+]	2017	3.31%	37.43%	2017	% Immigrant [+]
% Emigrant [+]	2017	1.44%	0.86%	2017	% Emigrant [+]
Birth Rate [+]	2017	15.92‰	19.19‰	2017	Birth Rate [+]
Remittance sent (M.$) [+]	2017	296.0	46,724.6	2017	Remittance sent (M.$) [+]
Crude death rate [+]	2017	4.49‰	3.58‰	2017	Crude death rate [+]
Fertility Rate [+]	2017	1.64	2.49	2017	Fertility Rate [+]
Rate Homicides per 100.000 [+]	2015	4.12	1.50	2015	Rate Homicides per 100.000 [+]
Population [+]	2018	81,800,269	33,699,947	2018	Population [+]
Immigrant stock [+]	2017	2,699,155	12,185,284	2017	Immigrant stock [+]
Emigrant stock [+]	2017	1,170,491	278,912	2017	Emigrant stock [+]
HDI [+]	2017	0.798	0.853	2017	HDI [+]
Gender Gap Ranking [+]	2018	142º	141º	2018	Gender Gap Ranking [+]
Life expectancy [+]	2017	76.15	74.72	2017	Life expectancy [+]
Number of homicides [+]	2015	3,259	472	2015	Number of homicides [+]
Energy and Environment
CO2 Tons per capita [+]	2017	8.27	19.39	2017	CO2 Tons per capita [+]

	Iran	Saudi Arabia
1960	21,906,914	4,086,539
1961	22,480,372	4,218,853
1962	23,071,315	4,362,786
1963	23,680,258	4,516,533
1964	24,307,860	4,677,298
1965	24,954,873	4,843,635
1966	25,624,373	5,015,357
1967	26,317,783	5,195,135
1968	27,032,571	5,387,828
1969	27,764,924	5,599,904
1970	28,513,866	5,836,389
1971	29,281,591	6,100,626
1972	30,075,297	6,392,970
1973	30,905,707	6,711,923
1974	31,786,471	7,054,532
1975	32,729,772	7,419,493
1976	33,733,961	7,802,926
1977	34,803,045	8,207,697
1978	35,960,805	8,646,845
1979	37,237,137	9,137,927
1980	39,291,000	9,320,000
1981	40,826,000	9,786,000
1982	42,420,000	10,276,000
1983	44,077,000	10,790,000
1984	45,798,000	11,330,000
1985	47,587,000	11,897,000
1986	49,445,000	12,492,000
1987	50,662,000	13,118,000
1988	51,909,000	13,774,000
1989	53,187,000	14,463,000
1990	54,496,000	15,187,000
1991	55,837,000	15,947,000
1992	56,656,000	16,948,000
1993	57,488,000	17,277,000
1994	58,331,000	17,701,000
1995	59,187,000	18,136,000
1996	60,055,000	18,581,000
1997	61,070,000	19,037,000
1998	62,103,000	19,504,000
1999	63,152,000	19,983,000
2000	64,219,000	20,474,000
2001	65,301,000	20,976,000
2002	66,300,000	21,491,000
2003	67,315,000	22,020,000
2004	68,345,000	22,564,000
2005	69,390,000	23,330,000
2006	70,496,000	24,122,000
2007	71,366,000	24,941,000
2008	72,266,000	25,787,000
2009	73,196,000	26,661,000
2010	74,157,000	27,563,000
2011	75,150,000	28,376,000
2012	76,038,000	29,196,000
2013	76,942,000	29,994,000
2014	78,470,000	30,770,000
2015	79,476,000	31,016,000
2016	80,460,000	31,743,000
2017	81,423,000	32,552,000
2018	81,800,269	33,699,947

CANDIDATE	PRE-DEBATE FAVORABILITY	DEBATE PERFORMANCE
Elizabeth Warren	70.2%	3.3
Pete Buttigieg	65.7	3.1
Beto O’Rourke	58.9	3.1
Cory Booker	59.8	3.0
Bernie Sanders	66.3	3.0
Joe Biden	67.6	3.0
Kamala Harris	61.8	2.9
Amy Klobuchar	52.8	2.8
Andrew Yang	56.3	2.7
Julián Castro	58.0	2.5

CANDIDATE	PRE-DEBATE AVERAGE	POST-DEBATE AVERAGE	DIFF
Joe Biden	68.3	67.4	-0.9
Bernie Sanders	55.7	55.0	-0.7
Elizabeth Warren	51.4	53.0	+1.6
Kamala Harris	40.2	40.4	+0.2
Beto O’Rourke	33.6	34.9	+1.3
Pete Buttigieg	33.4	34.3	+0.8
Cory Booker	32.0	33.2	+1.2
Julián Castro	25.4	26.1	+0.8
Amy Klobuchar	23.3	25.3	+2.1
Andrew Yang	23.1	24.5	+1.4

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